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Learn about the geology and chemistry of Mars, including its differentiated structure, elemental abundances, mineralogy, and volatiles. Find out how spacecraft, landers, and meteorites have revealed the secrets of the red planet.
A rock is a naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. Rocks are classified into three main groups: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, based on their formation processes and properties.
The asthenosphere is the weak and ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth, below the lithosphere and above the mesosphere. It is involved in plate tectonic movement and is the source of most magma on Earth. Learn about its properties, origin, and seismic features.
Earth's mantle is a layer of silicate rock between the crust and the outer core, mostly composed of olivine, pyroxene, garnet, bridgmanite and ferropericlase. It has a variable composition and structure due to phase transitions, melting and water content, and may contain remnants of Theia.
Earth's crust is its thick outer shell of rock, referring to less than one percent of the planet's radius and volume. It is the top component of the lithosphere, a solidified division of Earth's layers that includes the crust and the upper part of the mantle. The average thickness of the crust is about 15 - 20 km (9 - 12 mi), but it varies from 5 - 80 km (3 - 50 mi) depending on the type of crust.
Earth's outer core is a fluid layer about 2,260 km thick, composed of mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle. It is a low-viscosity fluid that convects turbulently and generates Earth's magnetic field, and contains light elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
The inner core is a solid ball of iron-nickel alloy with some other elements, with a radius of about 1,220 km and a temperature of 5,700 K. It is surrounded by the liquid outer core, which generates the Earth's magnetic field and affects its seismic waves.
Magma is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma can be found in the mantle or molten crust, and it may contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by melting of the mantle or the crust in various tectonic settings, and it may feed a volcano and be extruded as lava, or it may solidify underground to form an intrusion.